What is the difference between a paper written for a class assignment and a manuscript submitted to a journal? School papers are designed to address specific course objectives and, ultimately, academic program outcomes. Requirements for an academic paper are established by faculty and are a teaching strategy for promoting student learning. Consistent with the course objectives, a school paper usually includes a predetermined focus and specific content area such as ethical considerations or cultural implications. The organization of the paper may be prescribed and graphic displays of data may be required. At its core, however, the school paper is a scholarly endeavor, and as a published article, the work becomes part of a scholarly conversation with peers who are likewise engaged in advancing knowledge in a topical area.

What needs to be done to turn a paper written as an academic assignment into a publishable manuscript? The first step is to find a journal. Journals cited in the school paper's reference list is a good place to start because they represent the community of scholars interested in the topic. The goal of publication is to make an impact by entering a larger dialogue, which is not the same as getting published in a prestigious, highly rated journal. Invest time in making an informed decision about the journal. It should be indexed in a searchable database and peer reviewed. Avoid publishing scholarly work in venues that are not peer reviewed, such as newsletters or blogs. On the other hand, where the scholarly work has implications for practice, the best bet for influencing practice may be a non-peer-reviewed venue such as a blog with popular appeal among clinicians working in the field. This approach is more about informing and less about dialogue, and both have a place in an academic discipline with a professional practice.

Do not submit the paper as written for school to a journal. A school paper will not be in the format required by a scholarly journal. Obtain the author guidelines from the journal, most likely posted on the journal's Web site. Look at articles published in the journal, and get a sense of the topics, tone, length, and organization of its articles. Revise the school paper to meet the manuscript requirements listed in the author guidelines. Authors, especially new authors, have difficulty deleting unnecessary information. Some required content in the school paper-those sections on ethics or culture perhaps-may be cumbersome distractions in a more focused manuscript. All those tables that helped with mastery of the statistical analysis software need to go! Do not fear the delete key. The school paper met the course objectives; a manuscript has a different audience. Follow the guidelines and edit the school paper into a manuscript.

Academic programs usually include a capstone research inquiry; however, research reports are not the only type of scholarly manuscript. Analyses of theory, concepts or policy, program evaluations, quality improvement initiatives, and integrative or systematic reviews of the literature are also the basis of scholarly articles. Each type of scholarship has a defined purpose and corresponding standards of rigor. The manuscript reviewer's task will be to determine how well the author met the purpose and standards and to judge the adequacy of the manuscript. To this end, authors should specify the criteria, method, framework, or theory being used to guide scholarly activity. For example, a concept analysis should use 1 of several methods and all steps should be followed. Avoid modifying a method unless a scholarly rationale is provided, which can be difficult for beginners. Do not skip a step or criterion because it was awkward-it may be that the method is not the best choice for the intended purpose. Pick a more fitting method. As for a literature review, it cannot be limited to the 10 or so articles required for the school paper. A literature review implies a review of the universe of literature on a topic selected using specified criteria. An integrative review is different from a systematic review, and there are several methods for each. Pick a method and stick to it. The conclusions will be circumspect if the method is not identified and the process is transparent. Lots of school papers require inclusion of a guiding theory; however, using a theory to guide a work means using the theory to guide the entirety of the work. Do not specify a theory in the beginning of the manuscript, give a short paragraph explanation, and never again refer to the theory in the conduct of the project or discussion of the outcome.

In the last few years, this journal has seen increasing confusion between a research study and a clinical project. Reviewers frequently comment that they are not able to evaluate a manuscript because the intent is not clear. As more graduate students are conducting clinical inquiry projects, guidelines for project development and evaluation need to be stated in the manuscript and thoroughly addressed. A project has a purpose, objectives, and methods for evaluating the achievement of the purpose and objectives. A research study has a purpose and aims and methods for determining if the research aims were achieved. These 2 forms of scholarship are different, both important, but different. Many project-related submissions lack focus, include too much tangential information, do not flow logically, present insufficient data to determine outcomes, and apply statistical analyses inappropriately. Then there is the recurring problem of labeling as a pilot study any project or study with small subject numbers. Pilot studies are conducted for specific purposes such as to determine effect size of an intervention, feasibility of a measurement instrument, or acceptability of a procedure. A school project may have been limited in size or scope, but that does not make it a pilot study. All studies, pilot and otherwise, must meet criteria for rigor in research. There is no "research-light."

Authors do not usually respond directly to the editor when a manuscript is rejected, but when the reviewers suggested to an author that the project was more program development than research, the author wrote to say "that makes so much more sense!" Not everyone sees the wisdom of the reviewers' comments. Another author, upon receiving similar comments, responded angrily that there were 2 PhDs and a physician on the committee, a reminder that blind peer review is about what you write not who you are.

All authors, especially first-time student authors, should have colleagues not involved in the work review the manuscript. Help ensure success with logical content flow and correct grammar, spelling, and punctuation. Read a finished paper out loud-the ear will hear what the eyes do not see. Follow the author guidelines for the journal. Creative work is encouraged; creative writing, not so much. Transforming a school paper into a publishable manuscript means going the extra mile, but it is a personal accomplishment and a service to scholarly dialogue.